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Biologist

Biologist

A biologist is a scientist devoted to and producing results in biology through the study of organisms. Typically biologists study organisms and their relationship to their environment. Biologists involved in basic research attempt to discover underlying mechanisms that govern how organisms work. Biologists involved in applied research attempt to develop or improve medical, industrial or agricultural processes. Some biologists work in management positions coordinating or supervising reseach. Technicians perform specialized tasks using laboratory equipment. (U.S. Department of Labor.)

Training

Many positions in biology as a field require an academic degree. A PhD (or equivalent) is generally required to direct independent research but a bachelor's or master's degree is sufficient for most non-research positions. Training on the undergraduate level usually is very general while later training involves a specialization in a specific area of biology. (U.S. Department of Labor) See also: List of biologists

External links

- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos047.htm U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook]
- [http://www.biologo.com.br/biology/ The biologist] Category:Biology Category:Science occupations ko:생물학자 simple:Biologist

Scientist

:This article is about a profession. For the Australian indie rock band see The Scientists. For the dub musician see Scientist (musician). For the single by Coldplay see The Scientist (single). ---- A scientist is a person who is an expert in at least one area of science and who uses the scientific method to research that area. Upon the request of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1833, William Whewell invented the English word "scientist"; before this, the only terms in use were "natural philosopher" and "man of science".

Mathematics and engineering

Traditionally, mathematics has been grouped with the sciences, but in modern times people tend not to regard mathematicians as scientists. Mathematical discoveries generally appear to be arrived at differently than scientific ones, and experiments as they are usually conceived are unable to supply mathematical proof. Yet the class of people called "scientists" includes theorists who never do experiments, and even pure experimentalists often employ mathematics and deduction to arrive at their conclusions. At the same time, a mathematical proof may proceed as a proof by construction, an idea that shares something in common with experiments. The distinction between math and science is therefore not clear-cut. There is a more clear distinction, however, between science and engineering. Engineers are concerned with the design of a solution to a practical problem. A scientist may ask "why?" and proceed to research the answer to the question. By contrast, engineers want to know how to solve a problem, and how to implement that solution. In other words, scientists investigate phenomena, whereas engineers create solutions to problems or improve upon existing solutions. In the course of their work scientists may have to complete engineering tasks (such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes), while engineers often have to do research.

Types of scientists

- Astronomers (including astrophysicists)
- Biologists (including botanists, zoologists, entomologists, herpetologists, ichthyologists, lepidopterists, ornithologists, and virologists)
- Chemists (including biochemists)
- Computer scientists
- Ecologists (including hydrologists, limnologists, and toxicologists)
- Economists
- Geologists (including mineralogists, vulcanologists and seismologists)
- Mathematicians (see note above)
- Physicists

Organism

In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a complex adaptive system of organs that influence each other in such a way that they function as a more or less stable whole and have properties of life. The origin of life and the relationships between its major lineages are controversial. Two main grades may be distinguished, the prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The prokaryotes are generally considered to represent two separate domains, called the Bacteria and Archaea, which are not closer to one another than to the eukaryotes. The gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is widely considered a major missing link in evolutionary history. Two eukaryotic organelles, namely mitochondria and chloroplasts, are generally considered to be derived from endosymbiotic bacteria. The phrase complex organism describes any organism with more than one cell.

Organizational terminology

Biological Organization

Viruses

Viruses are not typically considered to be organisms because they are not capable of independent reproduction or metabolism. However, according to the United States Code, they are considered to be microorganisms in the sense of biological weaponry and malicious use. This controversy is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are incapable of independent life either. Although viruses do have enzymes and molecules characteristic of living organisms, they are incapable of surviving outside a host cell and most of their metabolic processes require a host and its 'genetic machinery'. The origin of such parasites is uncertain, but it appears most likely that they are derived from their host.

Life span

One of the basic parameters of organism is its life span. Some animals live as short as one day, while some plants can live thousands of years. Aging is important when determining life span of most organisms, bacterium, a virus or even a prion.

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/944790.stm BBCNews: 27 September, 2000, When slime is not so thick] Citat: "...It means that some of the lowliest creatures in the plant and animal kingdoms, such as slime and amoeba, may not be as primitive as once thought...."
- [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4742 SpaceRef.com, July 29, 1997: Scientists Discover Methane Ice Worms On Gulf Of Mexico Sea Floor]
- [http://www.science.psu.edu/iceworms/iceworms.html The Eberly College of Science: Methane Ice Worms discovered on Gulf of Mexico Sea Floor] download Publication quality photos
- [http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Ecophy/PDF/00-Fisher-NatWis.pdf Artikel, 2000: Methane Ice Worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola. Colonizing Fossil Fuel Reserves]
- [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=339 SpaceRef.com, May 04, 2001: Redefining "Life as We Know it"] Hesiocaeca methanicola In 1997, Charles Fisher, professor of biology at Penn State, discovered this remarkable creature living on mounds of methane ice under half a mile of ocean on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico.
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2585235.stm BBCNews, 18 December, 2002, 'Space bugs' grown in lab] Citat: "...Bacillus simplex and Staphylococcus pasteuri...Engyodontium album...The strains cultured by Dr Wainwright seemed to be resistant to the effects of UV - one quality required for survival in space...."
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003946.stm BBCNews, 19 June, 2003, Ancient organism challenges cell evolution] Citat: "..."It appears that this organelle has been conserved in evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, since it is present in both,"..."
- [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/bi04syllabsu03.html Interactive Syllabus for General Biology - BI 04, Saint Anselm College, Summer 2003]
- [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/s/jsf165/Bio110.html Jacob Feldman: Stramenopila]
- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Root NCBI Taxonomy entry: root] (rich)
- [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/surveybi04.html Saint Anselm College: Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms] Citat: "...Number of kingdoms has not been resolved...Bacteria present a problem with their diversity...Protista present a problem with their diversity...",
- [http://www.species2000.org/ Species 2000 Indexing the world's known species]. Species 2000 has the objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as the baseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from here to other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links.
- [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_828525.htm The largest organism in the world may be a fungus carpeting nearly 10 square kilometers of an Oregon forest, and may be as old as 8500 years.]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life]. zh-min-nan:Seng-bu̍t ko:생물 ja:生物 th:สิ่งมีชีวิต

Academic degree

This article is about academic degrees. For other degrees, see Degree (disambiguation) A degree is any of a wide range of awards made by institutions of higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing a program of study.

History

The first universities were founded in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. As with other professions, teaching in universities was only carried out by people who were properly qualified. In the same way that a carpenter would attain the status of master carpenter when fully qualified by his guild, a teacher would become a master when he had been licensed by his profession, the teaching guild. Candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and logic), and who had successfully passed examinations held by their masters, would be awarded a bachelor's degree. Thus a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully-qualified master – hence the English word graduate, which is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). Today the terms master, doctor and professor signify different levels of academic achievement, but initially they were equivalent terms. The University of Bologna in Italy, regarded as the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to award the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also awarded similar degrees in other subjects including medicine. Note that medicine is now the only field in which the term doctor is applied to students who have only obtained their first academic qualification. The University of Paris used the term master for its graduates, a practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge as well as the "ancient" Scottish universities of St Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. The naming of degrees eventually became linked with the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as masters, but those in philosophy, medicine and law were known as doctor. As study in the arts or in grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as philosophy, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the master's degree. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for all advanced degrees developed within German universities and spread across the academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. bachelor) is conferred upon French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admits the student to university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licence, much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. In Europe, degrees are being harmonised through the Bologna process, which is based on the three-level hierarchy of degrees (Bachelor (Licence in France), Master, Doctor). This system is currently in use in the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system now in use in some countries.

Types of academic degrees

Some examples of specific degrees follow each general term. For more information, see the article about the general term.
- Associate's degrees (U.S.): AA, ABS, AS
- Foundation degrees (U.K.): FdA, FdEd, FdEng, FdMus, FdSc, FdTech
- Bachelor's degrees: AB, BA, BComm, BE, BS, BSc, BFA, BCL, LLB, BM, BBA, BChir, BEng, MBChB, SB, BSSc
- Master's degrees: MA, MS, MSc, JD
- , MALD, MApol, MPhil, MRes, MFA, MTh, M.T.S., M.Div., MBA, MPA, MSW, MPAff, MLIS, MLitt, MPM, MPP, MPT, MRE, LLM, MEng, MSci, MChem, MPhys, MMath, MMus, MESci, MGeol, MTCM, MSSc, BCL (Oxon)#, BPhil (Oxon)#.
- Specialist degrees: EdS, B.Acc., C.A.S.,
- Doctorate degrees: PhD, EdD
- , EngD, DNursSci, DBA, DD, DSc, DLitt, DA, DMA, DMus, DCL, ThD, PharmD, DPT, DPhil, DOM, OMD, PsyD, DSW, LL.D, J.S.D. and S.J.D.
- Note: In the U.S., despite its name, the J.D. degree is not a doctoral level degree. It is a first professional degree and does not confer the title of doctor. While normally taken after a bachelors-level degree, neither is the J.D. a masters-level degree. The LL.M., which is earned after the J.D., is a masters-level law degree. The S.J.D. (Doctor of Juridical Science) is considered a doctoral-level degree and is the highest degree one can attain in law. Also, in the U.S., holders of the EdD (doctor of education) are considered "doctorally prepared" only within the field of education (see, for example, [http://www.aacsb.edu/ AACSB] rules for accreditation)[http://www.academicforum.co.uk .] #Note: Despite their names, the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) and the Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) offered at Oxford University are both advanced master's degrees (in law and philosophy respectively). In some countries, such as Australia, a diploma is a specific academic award of lower rank than an academic degree. Australia has several different types of diplomas: Diplomas, Advanced Diplomas, Graduate Diplomas and Postgraduate Diplomas. A diploma can also be an additional course taken after a standard bachelor's degree giving specilisation in a particular field. For example, Australian schoolteachers often study a bachelor's degree in Arts or Science (with a significant education component) for the first three years, then in their final year complete a Diploma of Education (DipEd), which qualifies them as school teachers. In Ireland a National Diploma is below the standard of the honours bachelor degree, whilst the Higher Diploma is taken after the bachelor degree. In Germany, there are several academic degrees. The lowest degree is the Bachelor (equivalent to a English Bachelor (hons.)), the (equivalent) Diplom (FH) or Diplom I. After that follows the Diplom II, Diplom (University), the Magister (in humanities) or the Master. After a Diplom II, Diplom (University), a Magister or a Master students can proceed to a doctorate. The highest academic degree in Germany is the Habilitation. The situation in Austria is similar to the situation in Germany: The students get a Diploma as well, but they graduate either with a Magister degree or with a Diploma. This depends on the faculty: arts, sciences and fine arts earn a Magister degree, while technical sciences get a Diploma in engineering. So the degree that, for example, an Information Technology student earns is "Diplom-Ingenieur".

Biology

Biology is the study, or science, of life. It is concerned with the characteristics and behaviors of organisms, how species and individuals come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address the phenomenon of life over a wide range of scales. At the atomic and molecular scale, life is studied in the disciplines of molecular biology, biochemistry, and molecular genetics. At the level of the cell, it is studied in cell biology, and at multicellular scales, it is examined in physiology, anatomy, and histology. Developmental biology studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or ontogeny. Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, genetics considers how heredity works between parent and offspring. Ethology considers group behavior of more than one individual. Population genetics looks at the level of an entire population, and systematics considers the multi-species scale of lineages. Interdependent populations and their habitats are examined in ecology and evolutionary biology. A speculative new field is astrobiology (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth.

Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle

Principles of biology

Unlike physics, biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by mathematics. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, homeostasis, and interactions.

Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code

mathematics]] Main articles: Life The most salient example of biological universality is that all living things share a common carbon-based biochemistry and in particular pass on their characteristics via genetic material, which is based on nucleic acids such as DNA and which uses a common genetic code with only minor variations. Another universal principle is that all organisms (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for viruses) are made of cells. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. For example, in most metazoan organisms, the basic stages of early embryonic development share similar morphological characteristics and include similar genes.

Evolution: The central principle of biology

Main article: Evolution The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of evolution (see Common descent). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. Charles Darwin established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, natural selection (Alfred Russell Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory. The evolutionary history of a species— which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended— together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this evolutionary timeline).

Diversity: The variety of living organisms

evolutionary timeline, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]] Despite its underlying unity, life exhibits an astonishingly wide diversity in morphology, behavior, and life histories. In order to grapple with this diversity, biologists attempt to classify all living things. Scientific classification seeks to reflect the evolutionary trees (phylogenetic trees) of the organism being classified. Classification is the province of the disciplines of systematics and taxonomy. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This clasification technique has evolved to reflect advances in cladistics and genetics, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to phylogenetics. Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms: :Monera -- Protista -- Fungi -- Plantae -- Animalia However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system: :Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) -- Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) -- Eukaryota These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors. There is also a series of intracellular parasites that are progressively "less alive" in terms of metabolic activity: :Viruses -- Viroids -- Prions

Continuity: The common descent of life

Main article: Common descent Up into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see abiogenesis). This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the Latin "Omne vivum ex ovo"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time. A group of organisms is said to share a common descent if they share a common ancestor. All organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life).

Homeostasis: Adapting to change

Main article: Homeostasis Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity (pH); at the organismic level, warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the ecosystem, as when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise and plants are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere. Tissues and organs can also maintain homeostasis.

Interactions: Groups and environments

organ of the genus Amphiprion that dwell among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the anemone fish from its predators]] Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its environment. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the African savannah. For any given species, behaviors can be co-operative, aggressive, parasitic or symbiotic. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an ecosystem. Studies of this type are the province of ecology.

Scope of biology

Main article: List of biology disciplines Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: cells, genes etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions. It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research. In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other. For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine DNA sequences, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.

Structure of life

DNA sequences and structures]] Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics, Developmental biology Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. Cell biology studies the physiological properties of cells, as well as their behaviors, interactions, and environment. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like bacteria and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types. Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information generally is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules. Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final phenotype of the organism. Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, and "morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model organisms for developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the zebrafish Brachydanio rerio, the mouse Mus musculus, and the weed Arabidopsis thaliana.

Physiology of organisms

Main articles: Physiology, Anatomy Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields. Anatomy is an important branch of physiology and considers how organ systems in animals, such as the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology.

Diversity and evolution of organisms

immunology of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak]] Main articles: Evolutionary biology, Botany, Zoology Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology also makes use of paleontologists, who use the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as theoreticians in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory. In the 1990s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy. The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are botany and zoology. Botany is the scientific study of plants. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolution of plant life. Zoology involves the study of animals, including the study of their physiology within the fields of anatomy and embryology. The common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology, molecular genetics, and developmental biology. The ecology of animals is covered under behavioral ecology and other fields.

Classification of life

The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.

Interactions of organisms

International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] Main articles: Ecology, Ethology, Behavior, Biogeography Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as climate and geology, as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and populations to ecosystems and the biosphere. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines. Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book The expression of the emotions in animals and men influenced many ethologists. Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.

History of the word "biology"

Formed by combining the Greek βίος (bios), meaning 'life', and λόγος (logos), meaning 'study of', the word "biology" in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur, 1802) and by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (Hydrogéologie, 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach, but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanov's Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia, published in 1766.

History

Main articles: History of biology, History of medicine, History of genetics Major discoveries in biology include:
- Cell theory
- Germ theory of disease
- Genetics
- Evolution
- DNA

External links

- [http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/biocode/biocode1997.html BioCode]: A proposal for organism naming.
- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Open-Access Books]
- PhyloCode, [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html]
- [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life]: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
- [http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=index-html BioOne] Bioscience research journals.
- [http://www.bionews.in/biologynews.htm Biology News] Biology News, Articles and Research discoversies.

List of biologists

This is a list of notable biologists. It includes zoologists, botanists, ornithologists, malacologists, naturalists and other specialities. See also:
- List of botanists by author abbreviation
- List of zoologists by author abbreviation.
- List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine __NOTOC__

A

- Humayun Abdulali (1914-2001), Indian ornithologist
- Erik Acharius (1757-1819), Swedish botanist
- Johann Friedrich Adam (18th cent - 1806), Russian botanist
- Michel Adanson (1727-1806), French naturalist (abbr. in botany : Adans.)
- Adam Afzelius (1750-1837), Swedish botanist
- Carl Adolph Agardh (1785-1859), Swedish botanist
- Jacob Georg Agardh (1813-1901), Swedish botanist
- Louis Agassiz (1807-1873), Swiss zoologist
- Alexander Agassiz (1835-1910), American zoologist, son of Louis Agassiz
- Nikolaus Ager (1568-1634), French botanist
- William Aiton (1731-1793), Scottish botanist (abbr. in botany : Aiton)
- Boyd Alexander (1873-1910), English ornithologist
- Horace Alexander, (1889-1989), English ornithologist
- Richard D. Alexander, (born 1930) American evolutionary biologist
- Wilfred Backhouse Alexander (1885-1965), English ornithologist
- Alfred William Alcock, (1859-1933), British naturalist
- Salim Ali, (1896-1987), Indian ornithologist
- Frédéric-Louis Allamand (1736 - after 1803), Swiss botanist (abbr. in botany : F.Allam.)
- Joel Asaph Allen (1838-1921), birds, mammals
- Prospero Alpini (1553-1617), Italian botanist
- José Alberto de Oliveira Anchieta (1832-1897), Portuguese naturalist
- Jakob Johan Adolf Appellöf (1857-1921), Swedish marine zoologist.
- Aristotle, (384 BC-322 BC), Greek philosopher
- Peter Artedi, (1705-1735), Swedish naturalist
- Jean Baptiste Audebert (1759-1800), French naturalist.
- Jean Victoire Audouin (1797-1841), French zoologist
- John James Audubon, (1786-1851), American ornithologist
- Richard Axel (born 1946), Nobel prize winning physiologist
- Joseph Ayers, marine neurophysiologist and biomimetic researcher
- Félix de Azara (1746 - 1811), Spanish naturalist

B

Ba-Bi

- Churchill Babington (1831-1881), British archaeologist and conchologist
- John Bachman (1790-1874), American naturalist
- Curt Backeberg (1894-1966), German botanist (abbr. in botany: Backeb.)
- Karl Ernst von Baer (1792-1876), embryology
- Liberty Hyde Bailey (1858-1954),American botanist (abbr. in botany : L.H.Bailey)
- Spencer Fullerton Baird, (1823-1887), birds and mammals
- John Hutton Balfour (1808-1884), Scottish botanist (abbr. in botany : Balf.)
- David Baltimore (born 1938), Nobel prize
- Joseph Banks, (1743-1820), biologist, botanist (abbr. in botany : Banks)
- Robert Bárány (1876-1936), Austrian physician, received the 1914 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the vestibular system
- Benjamin Smith Barton (1766-1815), American botanist (abbr. in botany : Barton)
- John Bartram, (1699-1777), American botanist (abbr. in botany : Bartram)
- William Bartram, (1739-1823), American naturalist (abbr. in botany : W.Bartram)
- Anton de Bary, (1831-1888), surgeon, botanist, microbiologist
- Henry Walter Bates (1825-1892), English naturalist
- Patrick Bateson, biologist, President of the ZSL
- Nicolas Baudin, (1754-1803), French botanist
- Gaspard Bauhin (1560-1624), Swiss boatanist introduced binomial nomenclature into taxonomy, which was used by Linnaeus(abbr. in botany : C.Bauhin)
- Johann Matthäus Bechstein (1757-1822), German naturalist (abbr. in botany : Bechst.)
- Rollo Beck (1870-1950), US ornithologist
- Charles Emerson Beecher (1856-1904), US invertebrate paleontologist
- Charles William Beebe, (1877-1962), biologist
- Thomas Bell (England) (1792-1880)English naturalist
- David Bellamy (born 1933), English botanist
- Edward Turner Bennett, (1797-1836), English zoologist
- George Bentham, (1800-1884), English botanist (abbr; in botany : Benth.)
- Wilson Teixeira Beraldo (1917-1998), Brazilian physician and physiologist, codiscoverer of bradykinin
- Robert Bentley (1821-1893), English botanist (abbr. in botany : Bentley)
- Claude Bernard (1813-1878), French physiologist and father of the concept of homeostasis
- Samuel Stillman Berry (1887-1984), U.S. marine zoologist
- Thomas Bewick (1753-1828), English ornithologist
- Colin Bibby (1948-2004), English ornithologist
- Gabriel Bibron (1806 - 1848), French zoologist
- Biswamoy Biswas (1923-1994), Indian ornithologist

Bl-Bu

- Liz Blackburn (born 1948), Australian/US researcher in the field of telomeres and the 'telomerase' enzyme.
- John Blackwall (1790-1881), British entomologist
- Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville (1777-1850), French zoologist
- Thomas Blakiston, (1832-1891), English naturalist
- William Thomas Blanford (1832-1905), English naturalist
- Pieter Bleeke (1819-1878), Dutch ichthyologist
- Günter Blobel (born 1936), German Nobel Prize-winning biologist who discovered that newly synthesized proteins contain "address tags" which direct them to the proper location within the cell.
- Carl Ludwig Blume (1789-1862), German-Dutch botanist (abbr. in botany : Blume)
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840), German physiologist and anthropologist
- Edward Blyth, (1810-1873), English zoologist
- Pieter Boddaert, (1730-1795 or 1796), naturalist
- Charles Lucien Bonaparte, (1803-1857), French naturalist
- James Bond (ornithologist) (1900-1989), American ornithologist
- Franco Andrea Bonelli, (1784-1830), Italian ornithologist
- August Gustav Heinrich von Bongard (1786-1839), German botanist
- Charles Bonnet (1720-1793), Swiss naturalist
- Aimé Bonpland (1773-1858), French botanist (abbr. in botany : Bonpl.)
- Jules Bordet (1870-1961), Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, winner of the 1919 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the complement system in the immune system
- Antonina Georgievna Borissova (1903-1970), Russian botanist
- Norman Borlaug (born 1914) is an American agricultural scientist, humanitarian, Nobel laureate, and the father of the Green Revolution.
- Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc, (1759-1828), French zoologist
- George Albert Boulenger, (1858-1937), Belgian zoologist
- Jules Bourcier (1797-1873), French naturalist
- Johann Friedrich von Brandt, (1802-1879), German naturalist (abbr. in botany : Brandt)
- Christian Ludwig Brehm, (1787-1864), German ornithologist
- Alfred Brehm, (1829-1884), German zoologist
- Thomas Mayo Brewer (1814-1880), American naturalist
- William Brewster (ornithologist) (1851-1919), American ornithologist
- Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723-1806), French zoologist.
- Nathaniel Lord Britton (1859-1934), US Botanist (abbr. in botany : Britton)
- Adolphe Theodore Brongniart (1801-1876), French botanist (abbr. in botany : Brongn.)
- James H. Brown, American ecologist.
- Robert Brown (botanist), (1773-1858), botanist (abbr. in botany : R.Br.)
- Morten Thrane Brunnich (1737-1827), Danish zoologist
- Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1762-1829), Scottish zoologist and botanist
- Stephen L. Buchmann, co-author of Forgotten Pollinators
- Linda B. Buck, (born 1947), American physiologist, Nobel prize winner
- Samuel Botsford Buckley (1809-1884), American naturalist (abbr. in botany : Buckley)
- Buffon (1707-1788) French naturalist (abbr. in botany : Buffon)
- William Bullock (1773-1849), English naturalist
- Walter Buller (1838-1906), New Zealand naturalist
- James Bulwer (1794-1879), English naturalist and conchologist
- Alexander G. von Bunge (1803-1890), German-Russian zoologist
- Luther Burbank, (1849-1926), American horticulturalist
- Hermann Burmeister (1807-1892), German zoologist
- Carlos Bustamante (born 1951), American biophysicist, discovered "molecular tweezers" to manipulate DNA
- Ernesto Bustamante (born 1950), Peruvian biochemist, specialist in mitochondria. Currently works on DNA paternity testing

C

- Jean Cabanis (1816-1906), German ornithologist
- Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934), Spanish histologist and Nobel laureate. Considered the father of neuroscience.
- George Caley (1770-1829), English botanist
- Rudolf Jakob Camerarius (1665-1721), German botanist
- Frederick Campion Steward (1904-1993), British botanist
- Augustin Pyrame de Candolle (1778-1841), Swiss botanist
- Alexis Carrel (1873-1944), French biologist and surgeon, winner of the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on sutures and organ transplants, advocate of eugenics
- Elie-Abel Carrière (1818-1896), French botanist
- Clodoveo Carrión Mora (1883-1957), Ecuadorian paleontologist and naturalist
- Sean Carroll, American evolutionary development biologist
- Rachel Carson (1907-1964), biologist, author of Silent Spring
- George Washington Carver (1860-1943), American botanist
- John Cassin (1813-1869), American ornithologist
- Alexandre de Cassini (1781-1832), French botanist (abbr. in botany : Cass.)
- Mark Catesby (1683-1749), English naturalist
- Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1603), Italian botanist
- Francesco Cetti (1726-1778), Italian zoologist
- Carlos Chagas (1879-1934), Brazilian physician
- Adelbert von Chamisso (1781–1838), German botanist
- Min Chueh Chang (1908-1991), biologist
- Frank Michler Chapman (1864-1945), ornithologist
- Sergei Chetverikov (1880-1959), Russian population geneticist
- Carl Chun (1852-1914), German marine biologist
- Stanley Cohen(born 1922), American biologist who won the Nobel Prize Laureate in Physiology and Medicine (1986) for his discovery of growth factors.
- Henry Boardman Conover (1892-1950), American ornithologist
- Timothy Abbott Conrad (1803-1877), American malacologist
- James Graham Cooper (1830-1902), American naturalist
- William Cooper (1798-1864), American conchologist
- Edward Drinker Cope (1840-1897), fish, reptiles, paleontology
- Charles Coquerel (1822-1867), French navy surgeon and entomologist
- Charles B. Cory (1857-1921), American ornithologist
- Elliott Coues (1842-1899), American ornithologist
- Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer (1907-2004), South African zoologist
- Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997), French marine biologist and explorer
- Miguel Rolando Covian (1913-1992), Argentine-Brazilian neurophysiologist, father of Brazilian neurophysiology
- Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar (1786-1845), German zoologist
- Francis Crick (1916–2004), one of the discoverers of the structure of the DNA molecule and a neurobiologist
- Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), English botanist
- Allan Cunningham (botanist) (1791-1839), English botanist
- William Curtis (1746-1799), English botanist
- Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), French naturalist.

D

- Anders Dahl, (1751-1789), (namesake of the Dahlia)
- W.H. Dall (1845-1927), American naturalist and malacologist.
- Charles Darwin (1809-1882), British naturalist
- Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), doctor, naturalist, grandfather of Charles
- Armand David (1826-1900), French zoologist and botanist
- Richard Dawkins (born 1941), British evolutionary biologist
- Anton de Bary (1831-1888), German botanist and mycologist
- Pierre Antoine Delalande (1787-1823), French naturalist
- Max Delbrück, (1906–1981), German physicist and biologist known for work on the replication mechanicsm of viruses
- Richard Dell (1920-2002), New Zealand malacologist
- Stefano Delle Chiaje (1794 - 1860), Italian zoologist
- Paul Émile de Puydt (1810-1888), Belgian botanist
- Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau (1810-1892), French naturalist
- René Louiche Desfontaines (1750-1833), French botanist
- Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest (1784-1838), French zoologist
- Ernst Dieffenbach (1811-1855), German naturalist
- Johann Jacob Dillenius (1684-1747), German botanist
- Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975), biologist
- Rembert Dodoens (1517-1585), Flemish botanist
- David Don (1799-1841), British botanist
- James Donn (1758–1813) English botanist
- Anton Dohrn (1840-1909), German marine biologist
- Alcide d'Orbigny (1802-1857), French naturalist
- Jean Dorst (1924-2001), French ornithologist
- Henry Doubleday (1808-1875), British entomologist
- David Douglas (1799-1834), Scottish botanist
- Jonas C. Dryander (1748-1810), Swedish botanist
- Renato Dulbecco (born 1914), biologist
- André Marie Constant Duméril (1774 - 1860), French zoologist
- Michel Felix Dunal (1789-1856), French botanist
- Robin Dunbar (born 1947), Italian virologist
- Gerald Durrell (1925-1995), British naturalist

E

- Sylvia Earle (1935), American oceanographer
- Gerald Edelman, (born 1929) Nobel Prize for immunology work, later work in neuroscience
- George Edwards (1693-1773), British naturalist
- Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, (1795-1876), German biologist and microscopist
- Paul Ehrlich, (1854-1915), German Nobel Prize-winning immunologist
- Theodor Eimer (1843-1898), German zoologist
- Daniel Giraud Elliot, (1835-1915), American zoologist
- Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher (1804-1849), Austrian botanist
- George Engelmann (1809-1884), German-American botanist
- Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben (1744-1777), German naturalist.
- Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz (1793-1831), Baltic German biologist and explorer, namesake of the California poppy
- Constantin von Ettingshausen (1826-1897), Austrian botanist
- Warren Ewens, American mathematical population geneticist
- Thomas Campbell Eyton, (1809-1880), English naturalist

F

- Jean Henri Fabre, (1823-1915), French entomologist
- Johan Christian Fabricius, (1745-1808), Danish entomologist
- David Fairchild (1869-1954), American botanist
- Hugh Falconer, (1808-1865), Scottish paleontologist
- Leonardo Fea, (1852-1903), Italian zoologist
- Christoph Feldegg (1780-1845), Austrian naturalist
- Howard Barraclough Fell (1917-1994), English zoologist
- Sérgio Ferreira, Brazilian pharmacologist
- Otto Finsch (1839-1917), German naturalist
- Johann Fischer von Waldheim (1771-1853), German entomologist
- James Fisher, (1922-1970), English ornithologist
- Ronald Fisher, (1890-1962), British biologist and statistician, one of the founders of population genetics
- Jim Flegg, British ornithologist
- Alexander Fleming, (1881-1955), British medical scientist
- Thomas Bainbrigge Fletcher (1878-1950) English entomologist
- Howard Walter Florey (1898-1968), a pharmacologist who was the co-inventor of penicillin
- E.B. Ford (1901-1988) British ecological geneticist
- Peter Forsskål (1732-1763), Swedish naturalist
- Georg Forster (1754-1794), German naturalist
- Johann Reinhold Forster (1729-1798), German naturalist
- Robert Fortune (1813-1880), Scottish botanist
- Dian Fossey, (1932-1985), zoologist
- Rosalind Franklin, (1920-1958), contributor to the discovery of the structure of DNA
- Elias Magnus Fries, (1794-1878), one of the founders of modern mushroom taxonomy
- Karl von Frisch, (1886-1982), Austrian ethologist and Nobel laureate, best known for pioneering studies of bees
- Imre Frivaldszky (1799-1870), Hungarian botanist
- Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), German botanist
- Louis Agassiz Fuertes, (1874-1927), American ornithologist

G

- Joseph Gaertner (1732-1791), German botanist
- François Gagnepain (1866-1952), French botanist
- Joseph Paul Gaimard (1796-1858), French
- Biruté Galdikas (born 1946), Canadian primatologist, conducted pioneering studies on orangutans
- William Gambel (1823-1849), American naturalist
- Prosper Garnot (1794-1838), French naturalist
- Charles Gaudichaud-Beaupré (1789-1854), French botanist
- Michael Gazzaniga, American cognitive neuroscientist, best known for his research on split-brain patients
- Howard Scott Gentry (1903-1993), American botanist
- John Gerard (1545–1611/12), English botanist
- Conrad von Gesner (1516-1565), Swiss naturalist
- Luca Ghini (1490-1566), Italian botanist
- John H. Gillespie, American molecular evolutionist and population geneticist
- Charles Frédéric Girard (1822-1895), French biologist, ichthyologist, herpetologist
- Johann Friedrich Gmelin (1748-1804), German naturalist (bot. abbr.: J.F.Gmel.)
- Johann Georg Gmelin (1709-1755), German naturalist (bot. abbr.: J.G.Gmel.)
- Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744-1774), German botanist (bot. abbr. : S.G.Gmel.)
- Frederick DuCane Godman (1834-1919), English naturalist and ornithologist
- Émil Goeldi (1859-1917), Swiss-Brazilian naturalist and zoologist
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), known for his literary works but also a scientist. In biology: his theory of plant metamorphosis stipulated that all plant formation stems from a modification of the Leaf.
- Camillo Golgi (1843-1926), Italian physician and Nobel prize winner, pioneer in neurobiology
- Jane Goodall (born 1934), British primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist, best-known for conducting a forty-year study of chimpanzee social and family life.
- George Gordon (1806-1879), British botanist
- Philip Henry Gosse (1810-1888), English naturalist
- John Gould (1804-1881), English ornithologist
- Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002), US paleontologist
- Alfred Grandidier (1836-1921), French naturalist and explorer
- Pierre-Paul Grassé (1895-1985), French zoologist
- Asa Gray (1810-1888), US botanist
- George Robert Gray (1808-1872), English zoologist
- J.E. Gray (1800-1875), British zoologist
- Andrew Jackson Grayson (1819-1869), American ornithologist
- Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon (1862-1933), British ornithologist
- Jan Frederik Gronovius (1690-1762), Dutch botanist
- Pavel Groselj, (1883-1940), biologist and belletrist
- Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville (1799-1874), French entomologist
- Johann Anton Güldenstädt (1745-1781), German naturalist
- Allvar Gullstrand (1862-1930), Swedish ophthalmologist, winner of the 1911 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine "for research on the image formation by the lens of the eye"
- Johann Ernst Gunnerus (1718-1773), Norwegian botanist
- Albert C. L. G. Günther (1830-1914), British/German zoologist
- Guranda Gvaladze (born 1932), Georgian botanist

H

- Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), German physician
- Hermann August Hagen (1817-1893), German entomologist
- J. B. S. Haldane (1892-1964), biologist
- William Donald Hamilton (1936-2000), British biologist
- Thomas Hardwicke (1755-1835), English naturalist
- Richard Harlan (1796-1843), American naturalist, zoologist, physicist and paleontologist
- Ernst Hartert (1859-1933), German ornithologist
- Gustav Hartlaub (1814-1900), German zoologist
- Karl Theodor Hartweg (1812-1871), German botanist
- Hans Hass (born 1919), Austrian biologist
- Frederik Hasselquist (1722-1752), Swedish naturalist
- Arthur Hay, 9th Marquess of Tweeddale (1824-1878), English ornithologist
- Oskar Heinroth (1871-1945), German biologist, founder of ethology
- Wilhelm Hemprich (1796-1825), German naturalist
- Willi Hennig (1913-1976) German biologist, founder of cladistics
- John Stevens Henslow (1796-1861), English botanist
- Archibald Vivian Hill (1886-1977), British physiologist, winner of the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his elucidation of the production of mechanical work in muscles
- Brian Houghton Hodgson (1800-1894), English naturalist
- Bruno Hofer (1861-1916), German fisheries scientist
- Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg (1766-1849) German botanist, entomologist and ornithologist
- Jacques Bernard Hombron (1798-1852), French naturalist
- Leroy Hood (born 1939), M.D., Ph.D. American biochemist, developed high speed automated DNA sequencer.
- Robert Hooke (1635-1703), British scholar
- Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), British botanist
- William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865), British botanist
- Thomas Horsfield (1773-1859), American naturalist
- Albert Howard (1873-1947), British botanist
- Eliot Howard (1873-1940), English ornithologist
- Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (born 1946), U.S. anthropologist who made contributions to evolutionary psychology and sociobiology.
- François Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist
- William Henry Hudson (1841-1922), Argentinian-British ornithologist
- Alexander von Humboldt, (1769-1859), German naturalist
- Allan Octavian Hume (1829-1912), British ornithologist
- Rob Hume, British ornithologist
- George Evelyn Hutchinson (1903-1991), American ecologist and limnologist
- Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), British scientist and early advocate of natural selection
- Alpheus Hyatt (1838-1902), US neo-Lamarckian
- Libbie Hyman (1888-1969), zoologist
- Josef Hyrtl (1810-1894), Austrian anatomist

I

- Hermann von Ihering, (1850-1930), German naturalist
- Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger, (1775-1813), German entomologist
- Jan Ingenhousz (1730-1799), Dutch-born British botanist.
- Tom Iredale, (1880-1972), English conchologist and ornithologist
- Paul Erdmann Isert, (1756-1789), German botanist

J

- François Jacob, (born 1920), French biologist, Nobel Prize
- Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin (1727-1817), Austrian botanist
- William Jardine (naturalist) (1800-1874), Scottish naturalist
- Feliks Pawel Jarocki (1790-1865), Polish zoologist
- Daniel H. Janzen (born 1939), American entomologist and ecologist
- Thomas C. Jerdon (1811-1872), British zoologist and botanist
- Wilhelm Johannsen, (1857-1927), (coined the term gene)
- David Starr Jordan (1851-1931), ichthyologist, 1st president of Stanford
- Adrien-Henri de Jussieu, (1797-1853), French botanist
- Antoine de Jussieu, (1686-1758), French naturalist
- Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, (1748-1836), botanist, biologist (botanical abbr.: Juss.)
- Bernard de Jussieu, (1699-1777), French naturalist
- Ernest Everett Just (1883-1941), American biologist

K

- Zbigniew Kabata (born 1924), Polish parasitologist
- Pehr Kalm, (1716-1779), Swedish botanist
- Motoderu Kamo, cultivated kimjongilia
- Eric R. Kandel, (born 1929), Nobel Prize winning neuroscientist, specializing in the neural correlates of learning and memory
- Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten (1817-1908), German botanist
- Stuart Kauffman (born 1939), biologist widely known for his promotion of self-organization as a factor in producing the complexity of biological systems and organisms
- Johann Jakob Kaup, (1803-1873), German naturalist
- Janet Kear (1933-2004), English ornithologist
- Robert Kerr (writer) (1755-1813), published The Animal Kingdom in 1792
- Warwick Estevam Kerr (1922-), Brazilian geneticist, specialist in bee genetics, introducer of African bees in Brazil
- Motoo Kimura (1924-1994), Japanese mathematical biologist, working in the field of theoretical population genetics
- Norman Boyd Kinnear (1882-1957), Scottish zoologist
- William Kirby, (1759-1850), English entomologist
- Heinrich von Kittlitz (1799-1874), German naturalist
- Karl Koch (botanist), (1809-1879), German botanist
- Robert Koch, (1843-1910), German Nobel Prize-winning physician and bacteriologist
- Emil Theodor Kocher (1841-1917), German physician, winner of the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland"
- Fritz Köberle (1910-1983), Austrian-Brazilian physician and pathologist, student of Chagas disease
- Alexander Koenig (1858-1940), German naturalist
- Albert von Kolliker (1817-1905), Swiss physiologist
- Charles Konig (1774-1851), German naturalist
- Arthur Kornberg, (born 1918), discovered DNA polymerase
- Albrecht Kossel, (1853-1927), German physician and winner of the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research in cell biology
- Hans Adolf Krebs, (1900-1981) German Biochemist and Nobel laureate
- Gerard Krefft (1830-1881), German-born Australian zoologist and palaeontologist
- Moacyr Krieger (1930-), Brazilian physician and physiologist
- Schack August Steenberg Krogh (1874-1949), Danish physiologist, winner of the 1920 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the mechanism of regulation of the capillaries in skeletal muscle
- Heinrich Kuhl (1797-1821), German zoologist

L

- Henri Laborit (1914-1995), French surgeon and physiologist
- Bernard Germain Étienne de la Ville, Comte de Lacépède, (1756-1825), French naturalist
- David Lack (1910-1973), British ornithologist
- Frédéric de Lafresnaye (1783-1861), French ornithologist
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829), French evolutionist, coined many terms like biology and fossils
- Aylmer Bourke Lambert (1761-1842), British botanist
- Hugh Lamprey, (1928-1996), British ecologist
- John Latham (1740-1837), English naturalist
- Pierre André Latreille (1762-1833), French entomologist
- Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922), French physician, winner of the 1907 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery that the cause of malaria is a protozoa
- George Newbold Lawrence (1806-1855), American ornithologist
- William Elford Leach (1790-1836) English zoologist and marine biologist
- Louis Leakey (1903-1972), British archaeologist
- Joseph Le Conte, (1823-1901), physiologist
- Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), developer of the microscope
- François Leguat (1637? - 1735), French naturalist
- Joseph Leidy (1823-1891), US paleontologist
- Johann Philipp Achilles Leisler (1771-1813), Dutch naturalist
- Juan Lembeye (1816-1889), Spanish naturalist
- Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), known as an artist but also an anatomist. Dissected hundreds of specimens and drew exact copies of them.
- Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour (1773-1826), French botanist
- Rene Primevere Lesson (1794-1849), French naturalist
- Charles Alexandre Lesueur (1778-1846), French naturalist
- François Le Vaillant (1753-1824), french ornithologist
- Richard Lewontin (born 1929), biologist
- Emmanuel Liais (1826-1900), French botanist
- Martin Lichtenstein (1780-1867), German zoologist
- Aristid Lindenmayer (1925-1989), Hungarian biologist
- John Lindley (1799-1865) English botanist
- Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767-1850), German botanist (abbr. in botany : Link)
- Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), father of the binomial name
- Jacques Loeb (1859-1924), German-American biologist
- Friedrich Loeffler (1852-1915), German biologist
- Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989), Austrian founder of ethology
- Harri Lorenzi Brazilian botanist
- John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843), English botanist
- James Lovelock (born 1919), English chemist and father of the gaia hypothesis
- Anatole Stephan Loukashkin, (1902-1988), biologist
- Percy Lowe (1870-1948), English ornithologist
- Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801 - 1880), Danish zoologist and paleontologist
- Salvador Luria, microbiologist, Nobel prize winner
- Adolfo Lutz (1855-1940), Brazilian infectologist, pathologist and public health researcher
- Richard Lydekker (1849-1915), English naturalist
- Trofim Lysenko (1898-1976), Soviet biologist and agronomist

M

Ma-Mi

- John Macadam (1827-1865), Scottish-born Australian botanist
- William MacGillivray (1796-1852), Scottish naturalist
- Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), Italian anatomist and biologist
- Lynn Margulis (born 1938), American microbiologist
- Alberto della Marmora (1789-1863), Italian naturalist
- Othniel Charles Marsh (1831-1899), paleontology
- Barry Marshall (born 1951), Australian physician and microbiologist, winner of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery that most stomach ulcers are caused by a bacteria
- Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (1794-1868), German botanist
- John Martyn (1699-1768), English botanist
- Francis Masson (1741-1805?), Scottish botanist
- Gregory Mathews (1876-1949), Australian ornithologist
- Paul Matschie (1861-1926), German zoologist
- William Diller Matthew (1871-1930), American paleontologist
- Polly Matzinger, American Immunologist
- Carl Maximowicz (1827-1891), Russian botanist
- Harold Maxwell-Lefroy (1877-1925), English entomologist
- Ernst Mayr (1904-2005) evolutionary biologist
- Barbara McClintock, (1902-1992), American biologist
- James V. McConnell, (1925-1990), American biological psychologist
- Edmund Meade-Waldo (1855-1934), English ornithologist
- Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916), Russian microbiologist, best known for his work on the immune system and phagocytosis, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1908
- Johann Wilhelm Meigen (1764-1845), German entomologist
- Gregor Mendel (1822-1884), Czech-Austrian monk who is often called the "father of genetics" for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants
- Edouard Menetries (1802-1861), French entomologist
- Maud Leonora Menten, biologist
- Archibald Menzies (1754-1852), Scottish naturalist
- Clinton Hart Merriam (1855-1942), American zoologist and ornithologist
- John C. Merriam, (1869-1945), American biologist
- Franz Meyen (1804-1840), German botanist
- Rodolphe Meyer de Schauensee (1901-1984), American ornithologist
- Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884-1951), German/American physician and biochemist, winner of the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on muscles
- August Karl Arnold Michaelis (1847-1916), German chemist
- Leonor Michaelis, (1875-1949), German biologist
- André Michaux (1746-1802), French botanist
- Aleksandr Fyodorovich Middendorf (1815-1894), Russian zoologist
- Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai (1846-1888), Russian marine biologist and anthropologist
- Gerrit Smith Miller, Jr. (1869-1956), American zoologist.
- Jacques Miller (1931-), Australian immunologist.
- John Frederick Miller (1759-1796), English illustrator (primarily of botany)
- Philip Miller (1691-1771), Scottish botanist (abbr. in botany : Mill.)
- Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835-1900), French zoologist
- Henri Milne-Edwards (1800-1885), French zoologist
- George Jackson Mivart (1827-1900), English biologist

Mo-Mu

- Hugo von Mohl (1805-1872), German botanist
- Paul Möhring (1710-1792) German naturalist
- Juan Ignacio Molina (1740-1829), Chilean naturalist
- Jacques Monod, (1910-1976) geneticist
- George Montagu (1753-1815), English naturalist
- Luc Montagnier (born 1932), French discoverer of HIV
- Rita Levi-Montalcini (born 1909), Italian-American neurologist who received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her co-discovery of growth factors.
- George Thomas Moore (1871-1956) US botanist
- Alfred Moquin-Tandon (1804-1863), French naturalist
- Thomas Hunt Morgan (1868-1945), American geneticist. He worked on the natural history, zoology, and macromutation in the fruit fly Drosophila.
- Desmond Morris (born 1928), British zoologist and biologist
- Roger Morse, professor, researcher, author, on bees/beekeeping
- Guy Mountfort (1905-2003), English ornithologist
- Ferdinand von Mueller (1825-1896), German-Australian botanist
- John Muir (1838-1914), US naturalist
- Otto Friedrich Müller (1730-1784), Danish naturalist (abbr. in botany : O.F.Müll.)
- Fritz Müller (1821-1897), German-Brazilian naturalist (abbr. in botany : F.J.Müll.)
- Philipp Ludwig Statius Muller (1725-1776), German zoologist
- Salomon Muller (1804-1864), Dutch naturalist
- Kary Mullis, (born 1944), biologist
- John Murray (1841-1914) Scots-Canadian Marine Biologist
- Otto von Münchhausen (1716-1774), German botanist

N

- Gary Paul Nabhan, (born 1952), co-author of Forgotten Pollinators
- Karl Wilhelm von Nageli (1817-1891), Swiss botanist
- Johann Friedrich Naumann (1780-1857), German founder of scientific ornithology
- John Needham, (1713-1781), English naturalist
- Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck, (1776-1858), German botanist and zoologist
- Charles F. Newcombe (1851-1924), British botanist
- Alfred Newton (1829-1907), English zoologist
- Margaret Morse Nice (1883-1974), American ornithologist
- Henry Alleyne Nicholson (1844-1899), British zoologist
- Alfred John North (1855-1917), Australian ornithologist
- Thomas Nuttall (1786-1858), English botanist and zoologist

O

- Eugene P. Odum (1913-2002), American ecologist
- Howard T. Odum(1924-2002), American ecologist
- William Ogilby (1808-1873), Irish naturalist
- William Robert Ogilvie-Grant (1863-1924), Scottish ornithologist
- Tomoko Ohta, Japanese molecular evolutionary bi

Category:Biology

Biology is the science of life. It is concerned with the characteristics and behaviors of organisms; how individuals come into existence, and how species evolve; and the interactions they have with each other and with their environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often considered independent disciplines many of which are listed below as subcategories. Category:Life Category:Science Category:Environmental science Category:Academic disciplines ko:분류:생물학 ms:Category:Biologi ja:Category:生物学 simple:Category:Biology

Category:Science occupations

Category:Occupations Occupations
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National Geographic magazine

The National Geographic Society was founded in the United States on January 27, 1888, by 33 men interested in "organizing a society for the increase and diffusion of geographical knowledge." They had begun discussing forming the Society two weeks earlier on January 13, 1888. Gardiner Greene Hubbard became its first president and his son-in-law, Alexander Graham Bell, eventually succeeded him. Its purpose is to advance the general knowledge of geography and the world among the general public. To this end, as one of the world's largest not-for-profit educational and scientific organizations, it sponsors and funds scientific research and exploration, and publishes as its official journal, the magazine, National Geographic, as well as other publications and products in furtherance of its mission. It also has heavy involvement in education, including an educational foundation furthering geography education.

National Geographic Magazine

geography The National Geographic Magazine, later shortened to National Geographic, published its first issue nine months after the Society was founded. It has become one of the world's best-known magazines and is immediately identifiable by the characteristic yellow border running around the edge of its cover. This distinctive yellow border is a registered trademark of National Geographic. The magazine consists of 12 issues per year (one per month), with occasional special edition issues. In addition to being well-known for articles about scenery, history, and the most distant corners of the world; the magazine has also long been recognized for its book-like quality and its standard of photography. This standard makes it the home to some of the highest-quality photojournalism in the world. The magazine often featured some color photography even in the early 20th century when this technology was still rare. The magazine is also well-known for frequently providing detailed maps of regions that are visited. The Society's map archives have even been used by the United States government in instances where its own cartographic resources were limited. In 2001 National Geographic released an 8 CD-Rom set containing all its maps from 1888 to December 2000. Subscribers to the magazine frequently keep old issues (most other magazines tend to be discarded after a household uses them), and subscribers can get special cases to contain each yearly volume. In 1960, the magazine started publishing photographs on its covers, which had previously contained only text. In subsequent years, the magazine shed its famous oak leaf trim. One cover photo in 1985 was of an Afghan refugee, a young girl with piercing green eyes. Her image became world famous. After the US-led invasion of Afghanistan a search was conducted for the girl. She was identified in 2002 as Sharbat Gula, a Pashtun. Her story was told in the March 2003 issue of National Geographic. In 1995, National Geographic began publishing in Japanese, its first local language edition. The magazine is now published in a number of different languages around the world, including: Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, and Turkish. In contrast to the United States, where membership in the National Geographic Society was until recently the only way to receive the magazine, the worldwide editions are sold on newsstands and via regular subscriptions. In April 2005, an Indonesian edition began, published by Gramedia Majalah - Jakarta. A Bulgarian edition of the magazine launched in November, 2005.

Other publications

In addition to its famous flagship magazine, the Society publishes four other periodicals:
- National Geographic Kids: launched in 1975 as National Geographic World
- National Geographic Traveler: launched in 1984
- National Geographic Adventure: launched in 1999
- National Geographic Explorer: classroom magazine launched in 2001. The Society previously published:
- The National Geographic School Bulletin, magazine similar to the National Geographic but aimed at grade school children, was published weekly during the school year from 1919 to 1975, when it was replaced by National Geographic World.
- During the 1980s and 1990s, it published a short-lived research journal. The Society has also published maps, atlases, and numerous books.

Television

:Main article : National Geographic Channel The National Geographic Society has also explored the use of television as a way to bring the travels of its correspondents and its educational and scientific mission into people's homes. National Geographic specials as well as television series have been shown on PBS and other networks in the United States and terrestially globally for many years. In 1997 internationally and in 2001 in the United States, the Society launched its own television network, the National Geographic Channel (NGC) for cable and satellite viewers, which has global distribution.

Support for research & projects

The Society has helped sponsor many expeditions and research projects over the years, including:
- Robert Peary and Matthew Henson - (North Pole Expedition)
- Robert Bartlett - (Arctic Exploration)
- Hiram Bingham - (Machu Picchu Excavation)
- Richard E. Byrd - (First flight over South Pole)
- Jacques-Yves Cousteau - (Undersea exploration)
- Louis and Mary Leakey - (Discovery of manlike Zinjanthropus, more than 1.75 million years old)
- Jane Goodall - (Chimpanzees)
- Mike Fay - (MegaTransect and MegaFlyover in Africa)
- Dian Fossey - (Mountain gorillas)
- Birute Galdikas - (Orangutans)
- George Bass - (Undersea archaeology - bronze age trade)
- Robert Ballard - (RMS Titanic discovery)
- Paul Sereno - (Dinosaurs)
- Spencer Wells - (The Genographic Project)
- Lee Berger - (Oldest footprints of modern humans ever found)
- Xu Xing - (Discovery of fossil dinosaurs in China that have distinct feathers)
- Ian Baker (Discovers hidden waterfall of the Tsangpo Gorge, Tibet)
- Gustavus McLeod - (First flight to the North Pole in an open-air cockpit aircraft) The Society sponsors many socially-based projects including AINA, a Kabul-based organization dedicated to developing an independent Afghan media. The Society also sponsors the National Geographic Bee, an annual geographic contest for American middle-school students. Every two years, it conducts an international geography competition. The most recent was held in Budapest, Hungary during the summer of 2005.

Hubbard Medal

The Hubbard Medal is awarded by the National Geographic Society for distinction in exploration, discovery, and research. The medal is named for Gardiner Greene Hubbard, first National Geographic Society president. The Hubbard Medal has been presented 33 times in the past. Recipients include polar explorers Robert Peary in 1906, Roald Amundsen in 1907, Capt. Robert Bartlett in 1909, Sir Ernest Shackleton in 1910 and Richard E. Byrd in 1926; aviators Charles Lindbergh in 1927 and Anne Morrow Lindbergh in 1934; anthropologists Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey in 1962; Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins in 1970; anthropologist Richard Leakey in 1994; conservationist Jane Goodall in 1995; underwater explorer Robert Ballard in 1996; and balloonists Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones in 1999.

External links

;Official websites :
- [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Online] ;Additional information :
- [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/03/0311_020312_sharbat.html "How They Found National Geographic's 'Afghan Girl'"] (March 7, 2003) :
- [http://www.persiangulfonline.org/ Website criticising the National Geographic on geographical names]—describes the Iranian geographic naming controversy :
- [http://www.niacouncil.org/pressreleases/press230.asp National Geographic and the National Iranian American Council discuss the naming dispute] (NIAC press release dated December 7, 2004) ;Photos, maps, and other images :
- [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/birth/nfor4at1.html Society's flag] Category:American magazine companies Category:United States magazines ko:내셔날 지오그래픽 ja:アメリカ地理学協会

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Category:Biology

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National Geographic magazine

National Geographic Magazine

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Hubbard Medal

See also

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